Science

Universe Today has recently had the privilege of investigating a myriad of scientific disciplines, including impact craters, planetary surfaces, exoplanets, astrobiology, solar physics, comets, planetary atmospheres, planetary geophysics, cosmochemistry, meteorites, radio astronomy, and extremophiles, and how these multidisciplinary fields can help both scientists and space fans better understand how they relate to potentially finding life beyond Earth, along with other exciting facets. Here, we will examine the incredible field of organic chemistry with Dr. Andro Rios, who is an Assistant Professor in Organic Chemistry at San José State University, regarding why scientists study organic chemistry, the benefits and challenges, finding life beyond Earth, and potential paths for upcoming students. So, why is it so important to study organic chemistry?

“Organic chemistry is a fascinating and powerful discipline that is directly connected to nearly everything we interact with on a daily basis,” Dr. Rios tells Universe Today. “This can range from what gives our favorite foods the flavors we love, to the medicines we take to help alleviate our pain. Organic chemistry is also the basis of describing the known chemistry that makes up the biology on this planet (called biochemistry) and can possibly provide the clues to what extraterrestrial life might be based on as well, should we find evidence of it in the upcoming years.”

While its name implies a scientific field of complicated science, the field of organic chemistry essentially involves the study of organic compounds, also known as carbon-based life, which comprises all known lifeforms on the Earth. This involves studying the various properties, classifications, and reactions that comprise carbon-based life, which helps scientists understand their structural formulas and behaviors. This, in turn, enables overlap with other disciplines, including the aforementioned biochemistry, but also includes materials science, polymer chemistry, and medicinal chemistry, as well. Therefore, given its broad range of scientific potential, what are some of the benefits and challenges of studying organic chemistry?

“Organic chemistry has played a vital role in transforming the human experience on this planet by improving our health and longevity,” Dr. Rios tells Universe Today. “All of us, or nearly all of us, have known either family members, friends or even ourselves who have fallen severely ill or battled some chronic disease. The development of new medicines, both directly and indirectly through the tools of organic chemistry to fight these ailments has been one of the most beneficial contributions of this field to society.”

Dr. Rios continues, “Learning organic chemistry in the classroom often presents a challenge because it seems so different from the general chemistry courses that most students have learned to that point. The reason for this is because organic chemistry introduces new terminology, and its focus is heavily tied to the 3-dimensional structure and composition of molecules that is not considered in general chemistry courses. The good news is that organic chemistry provides the perfect bridge from general chemistry to biochemistry/molecular biology which also often focuses on the structures and shapes of molecules (biomolecules).”

The field of organic chemistry was unofficially born in 1807 by the Swedish chemist, Jöns Jacob Berzelius, after he coined the term when describing the origins of living, biological compounds discovered throughout nature. However, this theory was disproven in 1828 by the German scientist, Friedrich Wöhler, who discovered that organic matter could be created within a laboratory setting. It took another 33 years until the German chemist, Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, officially defined organic chemistry in 1861 as a subfield of chemistry involving carbon compounds. Fast forward more than 160 years later to the present day, and the applications of organic chemistry has expanded beyond the realm of the living and can be found in almost every scientific, industrial, commercial, and medical field throughout the world, including genetics, pharmaceuticals, food, and transportation.

As noted, the very basis of organic chemistry involves the study of carbon-based life, which is the primary characteristic of life on our small, blue world. The reason is because the structure of carbon can form millions of compounds due to their valence electrons that allow it to bond with other elements, specifically hydrogen and oxygen, but can also bond with phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur (commonly referred to as CHNOPS).

While carbon-based life is the most common form of life on Earth, the potential for silicon-based life has grabbed the attention of scientists throughout the world due to their similar bonding characteristics as carbon. However, certain attributes, including how it shares electrons (known as electropositivity), prevent it from being able to form lifelike attributes. Therefore, if carbon-based life is currently the primary characteristic of all life on Earth, what can organic chemistry teach us about finding life beyond Earth?

“Life on Earth is highly selective in its utility of organic compounds, both big and small, which is an outcome of biological evolution on this planet,” Dr. Rios tells Universe Today. “But over the years detailed studies on the properties (reactivity, function, preservation, etc) of these molecules and polymers have revealed to us that there is nothing inherently ‘special’ about those biochemicals compared to those that aren’t associated with life (called abiotic chemistry).”

Dr. Rios continues, “What we have learned, however, is that there are trends, or patterns in the selectivity of molecules used by life that might be helpful in informing us not only how life emerged on this planet, but in the search for life elsewhere. This suggests that when we go looking for life in other worlds, we shouldn’t necessarily expect to find the same biochemical make-up we see in our terrestrial biology. Rather, we should be keeping a lookout for any patterns or trends in the chemical make-up of alien environments that are distinct from what we might consider typical abiotic chemistry.”

As noted, the science of organic chemistry is responsible for myriad of applications throughout the world, which are accomplished through the creation of new compounds. One of the most well-known applications for organic chemistry is the pharmaceutical industry and the development of new drugs and treatments, including aspirin which is one of the most well-known drugs throughout the world. Additionally, organic chemistry is responsible for everyday products, including biofuels, biodegradable plastics, agriculture, and environmental purposes. Therefore, with the wide range of applications for organic chemistry, including the potential to find life beyond Earth, what is the most exciting aspect of organic chemistry that Dr. Rios has studied during his career?

“For me, it was when I was in graduate school when I made the realization that I could apply the knowledge and tools of organic chemistry that I was studying in the lab, to questions that were relevant to astrobiology,” Dr. Rios tells Universe Today. “I am particularly interested in questions surrounding prebiotic chemistry, chemical evolution and the origin of life. The primary area that captivates my interest within the origin of life field is metabolic chemistry —exploring the origins of metabolism. This field, known as protometabolic chemistry, has been gaining momentum in recent years. Our community has been uncovering that small prebiotic molecules have the ability, under a wide range of conditions, to initiate simple reaction networks that can lead to more complex molecules over time. These results are exciting because they are potentially helping us understand the origin of one of biology’s most complex processes.”

The individuals who study organic chemistry are aptly called organic chemists who spend time designing and creating new organic compounds for a variety of purposes. This frequently involves examining the myriad of structural drawings of organic compounds and learning how each one functions individually and adding or subtracting new elements to create new compounds. Like most scientific disciplines that Universe Today has examined throughout this series, organic chemistry is successful through the constant collaboration with other fields with the goal of gaining greater insight into life and the world around us, including beyond Earth. Therefore, what advice would Dr. Rios give to upcoming students who wish to pursue studying organic chemistry?

Dr. Rios tells Universe Today, “Organic chemistry is a discipline that fundamentally interacts with so many other fields of STEM; biology, medicine, synthetic biology, bioengineering, chemical engineering, ecology, etc. Taking the time to devote a portion of your education in learning the language of this discipline will be one of the most important intellectual investments you will make in your STEM related career.”

How will organic chemistry help us better understand our place in the cosmos in the coming years and decades? Only time will tell, and this is why we science!

As always, keep doing science & keep looking up!

The post Organic Chemistry: Why study it? What can it teach us about finding life beyond Earth? appeared first on Universe Today.

We know little about how embryonic development in animals evolved from single-celled ancestors, but simple organisms with a multicellular life stage offer intriguing clues

In an approach they call 'nanostitching,' engineers used carbon nanotubes to prevent cracking in multilayered composites. The advance could lead to next-generation airplanes and spacecraft.

In an approach they call 'nanostitching,' engineers used carbon nanotubes to prevent cracking in multilayered composites. The advance could lead to next-generation airplanes and spacecraft.

Scientists have found a way to transform metal waste into a highly efficient catalyst to make hydrogen from water, a discovery that could make hydrogen production more sustainable.

A serendipitous lab accident revealed that hibernating bumblebee queens can make it through days of flooding, revealing that they are less vulnerable to extreme weather than previously thought

The Milky Way is ancient and massive, a collection of hundreds of billions of stars, some dating back to the Universe’s early days. During its long life, it’s grown to these epic proportions through mergers with other, smaller galaxies. These mergers punctuate our galaxy’s history, and its story is written in the streams of stars left behind as evidence after a merger.

And it’s still happening today.

The Milky Way is currently digesting smaller galaxies that have come too close. The Large and Small Magellanic Clouds feel the effects as the Milky Way’s powerful gravity distorts them and siphons a stream of gas and stars from them to our galaxy. A similar thing is happening to the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy and globular clusters like Omega Centauri.

There’s a long list of these stellar streams in the Milky Way, though the original galaxies that spawned them are long gone, absorbed by the Milky Way. But the streams still tell the tale of ancient mergers and absorptions. They hold kinematic and chemical clues to the galaxies and clusters they spawned in.

As astronomers get better tools to find and study these streams, they’re realizing the streams could tell them more than just the history of mergers. They’re like strings of pearls, and their shapes and other properties show how gravity has shaped them. But they also reveal something else important: how dark matter has shaped them.

Since dark matter is so mysterious, any chance to learn something about it is a priority. As researchers examine the stellar streams, they’re finding signs of disturbances in them—including missing members—that aren’t explained by the Milky Way’s mass. They suspect that dark matter is the cause.

“If we find a pearl necklace with a few scattered pearls nearby, we can deduce that something may have come along and broken the string.”

Soon, astronomers will have an enormously powerful tool to study these streams and dark matter’s role in disturbing them: the Vera Rubin Observatory (VRO).

Astronomers have different methods of studying dark matter. Weak gravitational lensing is one of them, and it maps dark matter on the large scale of galaxy clusters. But stellar streams are at the opposite end of the scale. By mapping them and their irregularities and disturbances, astronomers can study dark matter at a much smaller scale.

This image shows the core of the Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy and its stellar streams as it’s absorbed by the Milky Way. Image Credit: David Law/UCLA

The Rubin Observatory will complete its Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) in a ten-year period. Alongside its time-domain astronomy objectives, the LSST will also study dark matter. The LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration is aimed at dark matter and will use Rubin’s power to advance the study of dark energy and dark matter like nothing before it. “LSST will go much further than any of its predecessors in its ability to measure the growth of structure and will provide a stringent test of theories of modi?ed-gravity,” their website explains.

As we get closer and closer to the observatory’s planned first light in January 2025, the growing excitement is palpable.

“I’m really excited about using stellar streams to learn about dark matter,” said Nora Shipp, a postdoctoral fellow at Carnegie Mellon University and co-convener of the Dark Matter Working Group in the Rubin Observatory/LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration. “With Rubin Observatory we’ll be able to use stellar streams to figure out how dark matter is distributed in our galaxy from the largest scales down to very small scales.”

Astronomers have ample evidence that a halo of dark matter envelops the Milky Way. Other galaxies are the same. These dark matter halos extend beyond a galaxy’s visible disk and are considered basic units in the Universe’s large-scale structure. These haloes may also contain sub-haloes, clumps of dark matter bound by gravity.

This image shows a simulated Milky Way-size CDM halo. The six circles show sub-haloes enlarged in separate boxes. Sub-haloes are also visible, and the bottom row shows several generations of sub-subhaloes contained within subhalo f. Image Credit: Zavala and Frenk 2019

These clumps are what astronomers think are leaving their marks on stellar streams. The dark matter clumps create kinks and gaps in the streams. The VRO has the power to see these irregularities on a small scale and over a ten-year span. “By observing stellar streams, we’ll be able to take indirect measurements of the Milky Way’s dark matter clumps down to masses lower than ever before, giving us really good constraints on the particle properties of dark matter,” said Shipp.

The Lambda Cold Dark Matter (Lambda CDM) model is the standard model of Big Bang Cosmology. One of the Lambda CDM’s key predictions says that many sub-galactic dark matter substructures should exist. Astronomers want to test that prediction by observing these structures’ effect on stellar streams. The VRO will help them do that and will also help them find more of them and build a larger data set.

Stellar streams are difficult to detect. Their kinematics give them away, but sometimes, there are only a few dozen stars in the streams. This obscures them among the Milky Way’s myriad stars. But the VRO will change that.

The VRO will detect streams at much further distances. On the outskirts of the Milky Way, the streams have interacted with less matter, making them strong candidates for studying the effect of dark matter in isolation.

“Stellar streams are like strings of pearls, whose stars trace the path of the system’s orbit and have a shared history,” said Jaclyn Jensen, a PhD candidate at the University of Victoria. Jensen plans to use Rubin/LSST data for her research on the progenitors of stellar streams and their role in forming the Milky Way. “Using properties of these stars, we can determine information about their origins and what kind of interactions the stream may have experienced. If we find a pearl necklace with a few scattered pearls nearby, we can deduce that something may have come along and broken the string.”

The VRO’s powerful digital camera and its system of filters make this possible. Its ultraviolet filter, in particular, will help make more streams visible. Astronomers can distinguish stellar streams from all other stars by examining the blue-ultraviolet light at the end of the visible spectrum. They’ll have thousands upon thousands of images to work with.

Rubin Observatory at twilight in May 2022. Among the observatory’s many endeavours is the study of dark matter. Credit: Rubin Obs/NSF/AURA

In fact, the VRO will unleash a deluge of astronomical data that scientists and institutions have been preparing to handle. AI and machine learning will play a foundational role in managing all that data, which should contribute to finding even more stellar streams.

“Right now it’s a labor-intensive process to pick out potential streams by eye—Rubin’s large volume of data presents an exciting opportunity to think of new, more automated ways to identify streams.”

Astronomers are still finding more stellar streams. Earlier this month, a paper in The Astrophysical Journal presented the discovery of another one. Researchers found it in Gaia’s Data Release 3. It’s likely associated with the merger of the Sequoia dwarf galaxy.

It seems certain that astronomers will keep finding more stellar streams. Their value as tracers of the Milky Way’s history is considerable. But if scientists can use them to understand the distribution of dark matter on a small scale, they’ll get more than they bargained for.

The post The Milky Way’s History is Written in Streams of Stars appeared first on Universe Today.

Here’s a fun video with a range of sounds from an alligator to the loudest sound we know of, which you’ll have to watch to find out—and you’ll want to. (I have heard a white bellbird, and it was LOUD!)

There’s a wallet commercial from 3:00 to 4:00, so you can skip that minute.

I cannot vouch for any of the information given!

Tagging marine animals with sensors to track their movements and ocean conditions can provide important environmental and behavioral information. Existing techniques to attach sensors currently largely rely on invasive physical anchors, suction cups, and rigid glues. While these techniques can be effective for tracking marine animals with hard exoskeletons and large animals such as sharks, individuals can incur physiological and metabolic stress during the tagging process, which can affect the quality of data collection. A newly developed soft hydrogel-based bioadhesive interface for marine sensors, referred to as BIMS, holds promise as an effective, rapid, robust, and non-invasive method to tag and track all sorts of marine species, including soft and fragile species. The BIMS tagging, which is also simple and versatile, can help researchers better understand animal behavior while also capturing oceanographic data critical for helping to better understand some impacts of climate change and for resource management.

Simulations on the Stampede2 supercomputer of the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) are helping scientists engineer solutions to overheating of grid transformers -- a critical component of the electric grid.

A nearby supernova in 2023 offered astrophysicists an excellent opportunity to test ideas about how these types of explosions boost particles, called cosmic rays, to near light-speed. But surprisingly, NASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope detected none of the high-energy gamma-ray light those particles should produce.

Scientists using neutrons set the first benchmark (one nanosecond) for a polymer-electrolyte and lithium-salt mixture. Findings could boost power and safety for lithium batteries.

What a life! First I defend the speech rights of pro-Palestinian student who may well favor the elimination of Israel, and now I’m back again at Vanderbilt University, where, according to both the student newspaper and the Jewish paper The Algemeiner, students have rejected precisely one out of 11 student groups that applied to joint the school’s Multicultural Leadership Council (MLC): Students Supporting Israel. Wouldn’t you know it!? (One other group, Vanderbilt United Mission for Relief and Development, is awaiting a vote.)

There are two articles that say largely the same thing, so I’ll quote from the shorter Algemeiner piece.  But let us not forget that Vanderbilt become an “Our Hero” school when its Chancellor, Daniel Diermeier (Chicago’s former Provost) had students removed and arrested after occupying the administration building for nearly a whole day, protesting Vandy’s supposed complicity in supporting Israel against Gaza. Many of the students were also given interim suspensions, and there’s no sign that those suspensions will be lifted.  It was not free speech that Diermeier was opposing, for he’s a big advocate of such speech (after all, he’s from the University of Chicago). He was enforcing “time and place” regulations for protest, and it’s simply against Vandy’s rules to sit inside the administration building.

According to these two articles, the rejection of Students Supporting Israel (SSI) was a decision of Vanderbilt students, not the administration, and I guess they just don’t like Israel. After all, Jewish Voice for Peace and Students for Justice in Palestine, both hate-filled groups favoring the elimination of Israel, are already members of the MLC (so is a subgroup from Hillel, but I bet it’s been a member forever).

Click below to see the piece from the Vanderbilt Hustler, the student newspaper:

Click below to go to the Algemeiner piece:

I’ll quote from The Algemeiner, but you can check the other piece, too:

According to The Vanderbilt Hustler, [Students Supporting Israel] is the only one to be rejected from this year’s applicant pool, an outcome that SSI president Ryan Bauman said is evidence of febrile opposition to dialogue and coexistence among some segments of the student body. The only Jewish group to be admitted, Jewish Voice for Peace (JVP), is a fringe anti-Israel organization that did not condemn Hamas’ Oct. 7 massacre across southern Israel and has long celebrated terrorism against Israelis.

Among the nine groups to be admitted to the MLC this year were the Taiwanese American Student Association, Vanderbilt Pride Serve, the Vanderbilt Association for South Asian Cuisine, and the Vanderbilt Iranian Student Association. One of the 11 total organizations that applied, Vanderbilt United Mission for Relief and Development, is still awaiting an upcoming vote.

As a requirement of its application, SSI was told to deliver a presentation to the MLC but given only a few minutes to do so. Afterward, the group was cross-examined by the MLC — of which Students for Justice in Palestine is a member organization — about their opinions regarding “genocide” and “apartheid,” an apparent attempt to use the proceeding as a soapbox for anti-Zionist propaganda.

“We told them that we didn’t show up to discuss politics,” Bauman told The Algemeiner during an interview on Tuesday. “We told them we were there to celebrate Israeli culture and further the pro-Israel movement and invited them to have other dialogues at another time. We were then told to leave, and they held a closed session. And as you can see, it resulted in us being rejected by a wide margin.”

Is there any reason besides antisemitism or anti-Zionism that SSI would be the only group to be rejected? If you know Jewish Voice for Peace and especially Students for Justice in Palestine, you’ll know that they’re to a large extent hate groups who favor the abolition of Israel (SJP also celebrated Hamas’s October 7th attack on Israel). Is it too much to ask for a group supporting Israel to be added to the mix? Apparently so.

One more note from The Algemeiner:

This is not the first time that Students Supporting Israel has been denied membership in a student organization. In 2021, the president of Duke University’s Student Government vetoed a vote approving recognition of SSI, an incident which set off volleys of criticism and a sharp rebuke from the Louis D. Brandeis Center for Human Rights Under Law.

“Grant them the same access,” Brandeis Center president Alyza Lewin said at the time, warning of potential civil rights violations. “Treat them no differently than any other student recognized organization. If the university chooses not to intervene and does not make sure that SSI gets equal access and it is understood to be no different than any other organization, there could be potential legal liability for the university.”

That also holds for Vanderbilt, whose reputation for fairness could be besmirched by this act. As I said, I don’t blame the administration, which has been exemplary. Chancellor Diermeier also adopted the position of institutional neutrality as embodied in The University of Chicago’s Kalven report, making Vanderbilt one of only a handful of schools to take this essential position. Pity his efforts are being tarred by a bunch of hypocritical students.

Starfish feet are coordinated purely through mechanical loading, enabling the animals to bounce rhythmically along the seabed without a central nervous system

A researcher who made color history in 2009 with a vivid blue pigment has developed durable, reddish magentas inspired by lunar mineralogy and ancient Egyptian chemistry.

Traditional economics makes ludicrous assumptions and poor predictions. Now an alternative approach using big data and psychological insights is proving far more accurate

Astronomers have identified the most massive stellar black hole yet discovered in the Milky Way galaxy. This black hole was spotted in data from the European Space Agency's Gaia mission because it imposes an odd 'wobbling' motion on the companion star orbiting it. Astronomers have verified the mass of the black hole, putting it at an impressive 33 times that of the Sun.

Researchers adapt a novel force measurement technique to uncover the previously unidentified physics at play at the thin air-film gap between water droplets and superhydrophobic surfaces.

For the first time, scientists have managed to create sheets of gold only a single atom layer thick. The material has been termed goldene. According to researchers, this has given the gold new properties that can make it suitable for use in applications such as carbon dioxide conversion, hydrogen production, and production of value-added chemicals.

Optical neural networks may provide the high-speed and large-capacity solution necessary to tackle challenging computing tasks. However, tapping their full potential will require further advances. One challenge is the reconfigurability of optical neural networks. A research team has now succeeded in laying the foundation for new reconfigurable neuromorphic building blocks by adding a new dimension to photonic machine learning: sound waves. The researchers use light to create temporary acoustic waves in an optical fiber. The sound waves generated in this way can for instance enable a recurrent functionality in a telecom optical fiber, which is essential to interpreting contextual information such as language.