Science

Skeptics love to bring up one particular topic regarding long-term human space exploration - radiation. So far, all of the research completed on it has been relatively limited and has shown nothing but harmful effects. Long-term exposure has been linked to an increase in cancer, cataracts, or even, in some extreme cases, acute radiation poisoning, an immediate life-threatening condition. NASA is aware of the problem and recently supported a new post-doc from MIT named Robert Hinshaw via the Institute for Advanced Concepts (NIAC) program. Dr. HHinshaw'sjob over the next year will be to study the effectiveness of an extreme type of mitochondria replacement therapy to treat the long- and short-term risks of radiation exposure in space.

Coots' nests in Amsterdam are built using discarded plastic, providing a time capsule into the material's use over the past few decades

We are running out of photos from different readers, but fortunately we have several remaining installments from Robert Lang‘s trip to Brazil’s Pantanal, one of which I’ll present today. But please send in your photos!

Robert’s captions and IDs are indented, and you can click on the photos to enlarge them.

Readers’ Wildlife Photos: The Pantanal, Part VIII: Birds

Continuing our mid-2025 journey to the Pantanal in Brazil, by far the largest category of observation and photography was birds: we saw over 100 different species of birds (and this was not even a birding-specific trip, though the outfitter also organizes those for the truly hard core). Here we continue working our way through the alphabetarium of common names.

Laughing falcon (Herpetotheres cachinnans):

Lesser yellow-headed vulture (Cathartes burrovianus). One of the several vultures we saw (which included the spectacular king vulture (Sarcoramphus papa), but alas, that one only at a great distance.):

Monk parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus):

Monk parakeets live in communal nests that they keep adding to, eventually resulting in gigantic snarls of branches with openings all over that are a constant hum of activity. Here’s a close-up of one, showing some of the individual nest openings within the apartment block:

Muscovy duck (Cairina moschata):

Nanday parakeet (Aratinga nenday):

And a pair of Nanday parakeets:

Orange-backed troupial (Icterus croconotus):

Peach-fronted parakeets (Eupsittula aurea). These tiny, wide-eyed birds look like play toys:

Plumbeous ibis (Theristicus caerulescens):

More birds to come.

The Moon's getting to be a popular place. Firefly's Blue Ghost touched down on March 2nd in Mare Crisium. It's the first privately built lander to land safely and begin its mission. The little spacecraft set down safely in an upright, stable position and sent back an "I'm here" signal right away.

So far, in the context of 1920s quantum physics, I’ve given you a sense for what an ultra-microscopic measurement consists of, and how one can make a permanent record of it. [Modern (post-1950s) quantum field theory has a somewhat different picture; please keep that in mind. We’ll get to it later.] Along the way I’ve kept the object being measured very simple: just an incoming projectile with a fairly definite motion and moderately definite position, moving steadily in one direction. But now it’s time to consider objects in more interesting quantum situations, and what it means to measure them.

The question for today is: what is a quantum superposition?

I will show you that a quantum superposition of two possibilities, in which the wave function of a system contains one possibility AND another at the same time, does not mean that both possibilities occur; it means that one OR the other may occur.

Instead of a projectile that has a near definite motion, as we’ve considered in recent posts, let’s consider a projectile that is in a quantum superposition of two possible near-definite motions:

• maybe it is moving to the left at a near-definite speed, or
• maybe it is moving to the right at a similar near-definite speed.

This motion is along the x-axis, the coordinate of a one-dimensional physical space. If the projectile is isolated from the rest of the world, we can write a wave function for it alone, which might initially look like

Fig. 1: The wave function of the projectile at the initial time, with two peaks about to head in opposite directions; see Fig. 2.

in which case its evolution over time will look like this:

Fig. 2: The evolution of the isolated projectile’s wave function.

Again I emphasize this is not the wave function of two particles, despite what you might intuitively guess. This is the wave function of a single particle in a superposition of two possible behaviors. For a similar example that we’ll return to in a few weeks, see this post.

Because the height and speed of the two peaks is the same, there is a left-to-right symmetry between them. We can therefore conclude, before we even start, that there’s a 50-50 chance of the particle going right versus going left. More generally, whatever we observe to the left (x<0) will happen with the same probability as what we observe to the right (x>0).

Today I will show you that even though the wave function has one peak moving to the left AND one peak moving to the right, nevertheless this wave function does not describe a projectile that is moving to the left AND moving to the right. Instead, it means that the projectile is moving to the left OR moving to the right. Superposition is an OR, not an AND. In other words, in pre-quantum language, we have either

Fig. 4: The pre-quantum view of the wave function in Figs. 1 and 2; either possibility may occur.

We never have both.

But don’t take my word for it. Let’s see how quantum physics actually works.

First Measurement: A Ball to the Left

Our first goal: to detect the projectile if it is moving to the left.

Let’s start by doing almost the same thing we did in this post, which you may want to read first in order to understand the pictures and the strategy that I’ll present below. To do this, we’ll put a measurement ball on the left, which the projectile will strike if it is moving to the left.

Since we now have a system of two objects rather than one, the space of possibilities for the system now has to be two-dimensional, to include both the position x1 of the projectile and the position x2 of the ball. This now requires us to consider a wave function for not just the projectile alone, as we did in Figs. 1 and 2, but for the projectile and the ball together. This wave function will give us probabilities for each possible arrangement of the projectile and ball — for each choice of x1 and x2.

We’ll put the ball at x2 = -1 initially — to the left of the projectile initially — so that the initial wave function looks like Fig. 4, which shows its absolute value squared as a function of x1 and x2.

Figure 4: The absolute square of the wave function for the projectile (with position x1 near zero) in a superposition of states as in Fig. 1, and the ball which stands ready at position x2=-1 (to the projectile’s left in physical space.)

This wave function has the same shape in x1 as the wave function in Fig. 1, but now centered on the line x2=-1. A collision between projectile and ball will become likely when a peak of the wave function approaches the point x1=x2=-1.

As usual, let’s try to think about this in a pre-quantum language first. If I’m right about wave functions, we have two options:

• The projectile is heading to the left and the measurement ball will react OR
• The projectile is heading to the right and the measurement ball will not react.

Since our wave function is left-to-right symmetric, each option is equally likely, and so if we do this experiment repeatedly, we should see the ball react about half the time.

Here are the two pre-quantum options shown in the usual way, with

• a picture in physical space on the left, and
• a picture of the same event in the space of possibilities on the right.

In the first possibility (Fig. 5a), the projectile moves left, strikes the ball, and the ball recoils to the left. As the ball moves to the left in physical space, the system moves down (toward more negative x2) in the space of possibilities.

Figure 5a: As viewed from physical space (left) and the space of possibilities (right), the projectile moves left and strikes the ball, after which the ball moves left. The ball thus measures the leftward motion of the projectile. The dashed orange line indicates where a collision can occur.

OR

Figure 5a: As viewed from physical space (left) and the space of possibilities (right), the projectile moves right, leaving the ball unscathed. The ball thus measures the rightward motion of the projectile. The dashed orange line indicates where a collision can occur.

In the second possibility (Fig. 5b), the projectile moves right and the ball remains unscathed; in this case, viewed in the space of possibilities, x2 remains at -1 during the entire process while x1 changes steadily toward more positive values.

What about in quantum physics? The wave function should include both options in Figs. 5a and 5b.

Here is an actual solution to the Schrödinger wave equation, showing that this is exactly what happens (and it has more details than the sketches I’ve been doing in my measurement posts, such as this one or this one.) The two peaks spread out more quickly than in my sketches (and I have consequently adjusted the vertical axis as time goes on so that the two bumps remain easily visible.) But the basic prediction is correct: there are indeed two peaks, one moving like the pre-quantum system in Fig 5a, changing direction and moving toward more negative x2, and the other moving like the pre-quantum system in Fig. 5b, moving steadily toward more positive x1.

Figure 6: Actual solution to Schrödinger’s wave equation, showing the absolute square of the wave function beginning with Fig. 4. Notice how the right-moving peak travels steadily toward more positive x1, as in Fig. 5b, while the left-moving peak shows signs of the collision and the subsequent motion of the system toward more negative x2, as in Fig. 5a.

Importantly, even though the system’s wave function displays both possibilities to us at the same time, there is no sense in which the system itself can be in both possibilities at the same time. The system has a near-50% probability of being observed to be within the first peak, near-50% probability of being observed to be within the second, and exactly 0% probability of being observed within both.

Second Measurement: A Ball to the Right

Now let’s put a ball to the right instead, at x=+1. This is a different ball from the previous (we’ll use both of them in a moment) so I’ll color it differently and call its position x3. The pre-quantum behaviors are the same as before, but with x2 replaced with x3 and with the collision happening at positive values of x1 and x3 instead of negative values of x1 and x2.

Figure 7a: As in Figure 5a, but with the orientation reversed.

OR

Figure 7b: As in Figure 5b, but with the orientation reversed.

The quantum version is just a 180-degree rotation of Fig. 6 with x2 replaced with x3.

Figure 8: The evolution of the absolute-value squared of the wave function in this case; compare to Fig. 6 and to Figs. 7a and 7b. Third Measurement: A Ball on Both Sides

But what happens if we put a ball on the left and a ball on the right? Initially the balls are at x2=-1 and x3=+1. What happens later?

Now there are four logical possibilities for what might happen:

1. The ball on the left responds while the ball on the right does not
2. The ball on the right responds while the ball on the left does not
3. Neither ball responds
4. Both balls respond

Where in the space of possibilities do these four options lie? The four logical possibilities listed above would put the ball’s positions in these four possible places:

• Option 1: x2 < -1 and x3 = +1 (and x1 negative, as in Fig. 5a)
• Option 2: x2 = -1 and x3 > +1 (and x1 positive, as in Fig. 7a)
• Option 3: x2 = -1 and x3 = +1 (and x1 is ???)
• Option 4: x2 < -1 and x3 > +1 (and x1 is ???)

The fact that it is not obvious where to put x1 in the last two options should already make you suscpicious; but just setting their x1 to zero for now, let’s draw where these four options occur in the space of possibilities. In Fig. 9 I’ve drawn the lines x2=-1 and x3=+1 across the box, with option 3 at their crossing point. Option 1 lies below down and to the left of option 3; option 2 is found to the rigt of option 3; and option 4 is found down and to the right.

Figure 9: Where the four options are located, roughly speaking. The lines cross at the location x2=-1, x3=+1. If I’m right, only the two cases where one ball moves will have any substantial probability.

What does the wave function actually do? Can the simple two-humped superposition at the start, analogous to Fig. 4, end up four-humped?

Not in this case, anyway. Fig. 10, which depicts the peaks of the absoulte-value-squared of the wave function only, shows the output of the Schrödinger equation. Compare the result to Fig. 9; there are peaks only for options 1 and 2, in which one ball moves and the other does not.

Figure 10: A plot showing where the absolute-value squared of the wave function is largest as the wave function evolves. The axes are as in Fig. 9. Initially the two peaks move in opposite directions parallel to the x1 axis; then, after the projectile collides with one ball or the other, one peak moves down (to more negative x2) and the other to the right (more positive x3). These correspond to the expected options when one and only one ball moves; see Fig. 9.

With balls on either side of it, the projectile cannot avoid hitting one of them, whether it goes right or left, which rules out option 3. And the wave function does not put a peak at option 4, showing there’s no way the projectile can cause both balls to move. The two peaks in the wave function move only in the x1 direction as the projectile goes left OR right; then the projectile collides with one ball OR the other; then the ball with which it collided moves, meaning that the system moves to more negative x2 (i.e. down in Fig. 10) OR to more positive x3 (i.e. to the right in Fig. 10), just as expected from Fig. 9.

Actually it’s not difficult to get the third option — but we don’t need quantum physics for that!

We simply change the original wave function to contain three possibilities: the projectile moves left, or it moves right, or it doesn’t move at all. If it doesn’t move at all, then neither ball will react, a third option even in pre-quantum physics:

If the projectile were isolated, we would encode this notion in a wave function which looks like this:

and when we include the two balls we would see the wave function with three peaks, one sitting still at the point marked “Neither Ball Moves” in Fig. 9. But this isn’t particularly exciting or surprising, since it’s intuitively obvious that a stationary projectile won’t hit either ball.

Every Which Way

There simply is no wave function you can choose — no initial superposition for the single projectile — which can cause the projectile to collide with both balls. The equations will never let this happen, no matter what initial wave function you feed into them. It’s impossible… because a superposition is an OR, not an AND. There is no way to make the projectile go left AND right — not if it’s a particle in 1920s quantum physics, anyway.

Yes, the wave function itself can have peaks that appear at to be in several places at the same time within the space of possibilities, as in Figs. 6, 8, and 10. But the wave function is not the physical system. The wave function tells us about the probabilities for the system’s possibilities; its peaks are just indicating what the most likely possibilities are.

The system itself can only realize one of the many possibilities — it can only be found (through a later measurement) in one place within the space of possibilities. This is always true, even though the wave function for the system highlights all the most probable possibilities simultaneously.

A particle, in the strict sense of the term, is an object with a position and a momentum, even though we cannot know both perfectly at any moment, thanks to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. It can only be measured to be in one place, or can only be measured to be traveling in one direction, at a time. In 1920s quantum physics, these statements apply to an electron, which is viewed as a strict particle, and so it cannot go in two directions at once, nor can it be in two places at once. The fact that we are always somewhat ignorant of where an electron is and/or where it is going, and the fact that quantum physics puts ultimate limitations on our ability to know both simultaneously, do not change these basic conceptual lessons… the lessons of (and for) the 1920s.

In a record-breaking test, researchers remotely detected radioactive material by shooting it with infrared laser pulses and analysing how the light scattered

A supermassive black hole that doesn't appear to be where we would expect seems to be travelling at more than a thousand kilometres per second – the result of a giant cosmic collision

It is impossible for us to know exactly how another person's experience of the world compares to our own, but a new experiment is helping to reveal that colour is indeed a shared phenomenon

The dividing line between gas giant planets and failed stars is blurry at best. The isolated planetary-mass object SIMP J013656.5+093347.3 could be either one. The distinction is largely semantic. However we choose to label and define it, the object displays a surprisingly complex atmosphere for an isolated object without any stellar energy input.

"Journalist" Paul Thacker defends Dr. Jay Bhattacharya and the Great Barrington Declaration by rehashing the same old deceptive rhetoric.

The post Paul Thacker relitigates criticisms of Dr. Jay Bhattacharya and the Great Barrington Declaration first appeared on Science-Based Medicine.

A team of researchers created Morpho, an open-source programmable environment that enables researchers and engineers to conduct shape optimization and design for soft materials. Applications can be for anything from artificial hearts to robot materials that mimic flesh and soft tissue.

A team of researchers created Morpho, an open-source programmable environment that enables researchers and engineers to conduct shape optimization and design for soft materials. Applications can be for anything from artificial hearts to robot materials that mimic flesh and soft tissue.

Researchers have explored the interplay between gravitational effects and quantum interactions in optical atomic clocks, revealing more about quantum entanglement in precision timekeeping.

Within the next decade, space agencies plan to bring samples of rock from Mars to Earth for study. Of concern is the possibility these samples contain life, which could have unforeseen consequences. Therefore, researchers in this field strive to create methods to detect life. Researchers have now successfully demonstrated a method to detect life in ancient rocks analogous to those found on Mars.

Research has achieved a breakthrough in eco-friendly display technology, creating highly efficient and stable blue quantum dot LEDs (QLEDs) that could power the next generation of televisions, smartphones, VR headsets and energy-efficient lighting -- without using toxic heavy metals.

Research has achieved a breakthrough in eco-friendly display technology, creating highly efficient and stable blue quantum dot LEDs (QLEDs) that could power the next generation of televisions, smartphones, VR headsets and energy-efficient lighting -- without using toxic heavy metals.

Sea ice cover in both the Antarctic and Arctic remained far below average throughout February as global average temperatures linger near record highs

Cutting edge technology may come with downsides.

A new seismic study of Singapore could guide urban growth and renewable energy development in the coastal city nation, where 5.6 million residents live within an area of 734 square kilometers.

Bacterial vaginosis, which is caused by bacteria overgrowing in the vagina, can be hard to treat, with women often experiencing recurring symptoms. Now it seems that asking their male sexual partners to use antibiotic pills and cream could be key to tackling the condition